Wikidata:Lexicographical data/Documentation/Languages/inc

The intent of this page is to consolidate documentation broadly applicable to the Indo-Aryan (Q33577) branch of languages. This includes information about differences in writing system and register which can present challenges in documenting these languages, pointers for utilizing cross-linguistic reference materials, comparisons of grammatical features, and guidelines for modelling phrases and compounds.

Different sources regarding the grammars of closely related languages, or even the same language, can vary widely in how they describe the same grammatical features. We would like grammatically equivalent forms to be modeled the same way between cognate languages.

Grammar

Verbs

The way verb lexemes are modeled for the Indo-Aryan languages can broadly be categorized into two patterns:

• Verbs in varieties of the Bengali–Assamese languages and the Odia cluster have forms inflected for number and person in three tenses (past, present, and future).
• Verbs in most of the Indo-Aryan languages spoken to the west of this group primarily express temporal reference with aspect rather then tense, and do so with adjective-like forms inflected for number and gender. Personal finite verb forms are used in these languages for the subjunctive and imperative moods. The sections pertaining to verb phases and the copula are specifically applicable to this group.

Verbs in Sinhala or Dhivehi have yet to be modeled as lexemes in detail at this time.

Phases

The concept of verb phases originates from A Comparative Grammar of the Indo-Aryan Languages by John Beames, and describes a group of related verb forms denoting a particular number of participants in the predicate. This number is the valency of a verb sense. The model for verb phases demonstrated here is based on an elaboration on Beames’s work presented in Panjabi: A Comprehensive Grammar by Mangat Rai Bhardwaj, and extended to languages such as Sindhi and Hindustani where the same patterns can be observed. The principles governing verb phases in the languages they occur are as follows:

• All verbs are basically intransitive, with a basic valency of 1, or transitive, with a basic valency of 2.
• From the basic verb phases, additive and substractive phases are formed with higher or lower valencies. A basically intransitive verb can have an additive transitive phase, which has a valency of 2, for example. A basically transitive verb can likewise have a subtractive phase with a valency of 1.
• Causative (valency 3) and double causative (valency 4) phases occur exclusively as additive phases of basically intransitive or transitive verbs.
• Subtractive, causative, and double causative phases have fewer forms than their corresponding basic phases due to semantic constraints on their use. For example, causative phases do not have passive conjugations.
• In serial verb constructions, it is expected that the phase of each verb form in a sequence has a valency greater than or equal to that of the form which follows it. A more nuanced overview of serial verbs and related phenomena will be covered in sections dedicated to this topic.

We can see evidence for the relationship between additive and subtractive phases and the basic phases in the fact that double causative phases typically derive their stems from the basic stem, rather than from that of the phase of one fewer valency. Regular patterns in phonological weight can also be observed across phases.

Phase	Transitivity of phase	Valency	Gerund
Basic	Intransitive	1	मरना/مرنا (L616934-F121)
Additive	Transitive	2	मारना/مارنا (L616934-F81)
Additive	Causative	3	मराना/مرانا (L616934-F165)
Additive	Double causative	4	मरवाना/مروانا (L616934-F205)

Terminology

The terminology used in dictionaries and grammars of Indo-Aryan languages largely draw from three sources—English, Indo-Persian, and Sanskrit. Identifying equivalents between these vocabularies is often necessary for utilizing the reference materials available for a given language. While the use of English as a “filter language” has resulted in many misunderstandings, there is a practical reality that, for example, many speakers of Punjabi are more familiar with the English grammatical vocabulary than the Indo-Persian and Sanskritic terms.

Indo-Persian here describes the Perso-Arabic terms used in Indic linguistic works. These often differ in meaning from their Persian equivalents, and show a preference for ultimately Arabic vocables when compared to the standard language of Iran. (For example, لاحقہ rather than پسوند is used for suffixes.) The Sanskrit terms can be more specifically described as selected learned borrowings adapted in meaning via Bengali, Marathi, and/or Hindustani, often adjusted to match the meanings of English words. Some terms have tadbhava (native, inherited) equivalents.

English	Indo-Persian	Sanskrit	Tadbhava
grammatical category / part of speech	کلمہ	श्रेणी / पद
noun	اسم	संज्ञा / विशेष्य
pronoun	ضمیر	सर्वनाम
adjective	صفت	विशेषण
adverb	متعلق فعل / ظرف	क्रिया विशेषण
verb	فعل	क्रिया
preposition	جارِ مقدم	पुरःसर्ग
particle	حرف	अंश
marker	نشان گر
conjunction	عطف
prefix	سابقہ	उपसर्ग
suffix	لاحقہ	प्रत्यय
root	مادہ	धातु
onamatopoeia	صوت	अनुकरणवाचक
masculine	مذکر	पुंलिङ्गं
feminine	مونث	स्त्री लिङ्गं
singular	واحد	एकवचन
dual	مثنیٰ	द्विवचन
plural	جمع	बहुवचन
case	حالت	कारक
ablative	مفعول معہ	अपादान
absolutive	مفعول مطلق	असमापिका
accusative	مفعولی	कर्म
benefactive	مفعول لہ	भोजा
dative	نصیبی	सम्परदान
direct	فاعلی	मुख्य
ergative	مجہول فاعلی	कर्मकर्तृवाचक / अप्रत्यक्ष कर्तृ
genitive	اضافی	सम्बन्ध
instrumental	ذریعہ	करण
locative	ظرف	अधिकरण
nominative	فاعلی / فاعلیت	कर्ता / कर्तृ
oblique	مفعولی	तिर्यक
postpositional		परसर्गीय / अनुसर्गीय
vocative	ندائی	सम्वोधन
positive
comparative
superlative
transitivity	موجب	सकर्मकता
intransitive	لازمی	अकर्मक
transitive	متعدی	सकर्मक
auxiliary	امدادی / معاون
basic	بنیادی
gerund	اسمِ مصدر	क्रियाविशेष्य
imperative	امر
indicative
habitual
subjunctive
past
present
future	مستقبل
aorist	مضارع
active
passive
syntagma	ترتیب	वाकप्रवाह
orthography	املاء / ہجا	वर्तनी
grammar	صرف و نحو / قواعد / قاعدہ	व्याकरण
syntax	نحو	वाक्यविन्यास
etymology	اشتقاقیات	निरुक्ति
derivation	اشتتاق
loan / borrowing	مستعار
morphology	صوریات / صرف	पदविज्ञान
morpheme	صرفیہ
form	ہئیت	रूप
alternative	متبادل	भेड
paradigm	گردان
phonetics	صوتیات	ध्वनि
phonetic	صوتی	ध्वन्यात्मक
semantics	معنویات	अर्थविज्ञान
linguistics	لسانیات	भाषा विज्ञान
dictionary	لغت	कोश
lexical	لغوی / لغاتی	कोशी
lexical unit	مندرج
lexicography	لغت نویسی
pronunciation	تلفظ	उच्चारण
phonology	اصوات	ध्वनितत्व
phoneme	صوتیہ	ध्वनिग्राम
phonemic		ध्वनिग्रामिक
segment	قطعہ
consonant	صحیح / مصمتہ	व्यंजन
vowel	علت / مصوتہ	स्वर
semi-vowel	نیم مصوتہ	अर्धस्वर
allophone	ذیلی صوتیہ	संध्वनि
alveolar	لثوی	वर्त्स्य
apical	نوکیلی	पुरोवर्ती
aspirate	ہائیہ	महाप्राण
back	آخری	पश्चात्
bilabial	دو لبی	द्वयोष्ठय
breathy	تنفسی	श्वासध्वनि
central	مرکزی	मध्य
close	بند	संवृत्त
close-mid / half-close		अर्द्धसंवृत्त
cluster	خوشہ	गुच्छ
continuant	جاریہ	प्रलंबध्वनि
dental	دنتی / دندانی	दंत्य
flap	تکریری	उत्क्षिप्त
fricative	صفیریہ	संघर्षी
front	ابتدائی	अग्र
geminated	مشدد
gemination	تشدید
glide	تدریجیہ
glottal	حلقی	प्राण ध्वनि
gradation	تدریج
homorganic nasal	ہم مخرج	अनुनासिक
labial	لبی	ओष्ठ्य
labiodental	لب دنتی / لب دندانی	दंत्योष्ठय
laryngeal	حنجری	स्वरयंत्रमुखी
lateral		पार्श्विक
liquid	سیال
long	طویل	दीर्घ
mid	درمیانی
nasal	انفی	नासिक्य
neutral		उदासीन
open		विवृत्त
open-mid / half-open		अर्द्धविवृत्त
palatal	حنکی	तालव्य
pharyngeal	حلقومی
plosive	بندشی
pre-velar		कोमलतालव्य
post-velar	پس غشائی
retroflex / cerebral	معکوسی	मूर्द्धन्य
rolled		लुंठित
rounded	مدور	वृत्तमुखी
short	خفیف	ह्रस्व
spirant	صفیری	सीत्कार
stop	بندشیہ	स्पर्श
trill	ارتعاشی	प्रकंपित
unaspirated	غیر ہکاری	अल्पप्राण
unrounded	غیر مدور	अवृत्तमुखी
uvular	لہاتی	अलिजिह्वीय
velar	غشائی	कंठय
voiced	مسموع	घोष
voiceless	غیر مسموع	अघोष
prosody	عروض
antepenultimate	پیش قبلِ آخر
coda	اختتامیہ
emphatic	تاکیدی
final	آخری
initial	ابتدائی
junction	مربوطیہ
juncture	اتصال
onset	ابتداء
pause	وقفہ
penultimate	قبلِ آخر
nucleus	مرکزہ
stress	زور / تاکید
syllable	رکن
phrase	ترکیب
clause	فقرہ
sentence	جملہ
analytical	تحلیلی
current	مروج
figurative	کنایۃً
idiomatic	محاورےدار / محاوراتی
ironic	طنزاً
metaphorical	مجازاً
obsolete	متروک
standard	معیاری
style	اسلوب
synthetic	ترکیبی

References

• ভাষাতত্ত্ব পরিভাষাকেষ: Terminology of Linguistics (in English and Bengali) (3rd ed.), Dhaka: Bangla Academy, 1990, Wikidata Q124024300
• Subhas Bhattacharya (2014). ভাষাকোষ (in English and Bengali). Kolkata: Bangiya Sahitya Samsad. ISBN 978-93-83590-12-4. Wikidata Q124030125.
• Kanhaiyalal Lekhwani (2001). "Hindi hoːnaː - Sindhi huANu and thiANu". Papers in Applied Linguistics. 2: 182–185. Wikidata Q124034493.
• Annie Montaut (2011). Basic intransitivity: a typologically relevant feature for Indo-Aryan. Indo-Aryan Linguistics. pp. 29–46. ISBN 978-81-7343-103-6. Wikidata Q124034386.
• Kalimuddin Ahmad, ed. (1994), Jāmi‘ English–Urdu Dictionary: with over 250,000 words (in English and Hindustani), New Delhi: Bureau for Promotion of Urdu, Wikidata Q124043195CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
• Oleg Georgiëvitsj Oeltsiferov (1979), हिन्दी में क्रिया: एक व्याकरणिक अनुसंधान (in Hindustani), Delhi: Parag Prakashan, Wikidata Q124043857CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
• Mina Dan, ed. (2013). "Technical expressions in linguistics". Bulletin of the Department of Linguistics (in English and Bengali). 17. ISSN 2319-6165. Wikidata Q124043956.